PART - TWO
Women Participation in Labour Sector

Nepal is one of the least developed countries in South Asia. According to a report of International Labour Organisation (ILO), 50.2 percent of the total population of our country is below the poverty line. As women constitute more than 50 percent of the 22 million population in Nepal, development of the country is not possible without proper participation and mobilisation of the working women.

According to the report of the National Labour Force Survey (NLFS) 1998/99, 54 percent of the total population is economically active. Of the total female population, fifty-six percent are economically active, where as only 53 per cent of the male population have been found economically active. It indicates that the participation of women is larger than that of men in economic activities of the entire society.
Even though women participation in labour force is increasing, women labour in the income generating activity is undervalued, unseen and discriminated due to our social norms, values, culture and the lack of opportunity for education.

The entire labour force involved in economic activities can be divided into three categories: paid, unpaid and self-employed. Thirteen percent of them are paid, 40.64 percent self-employed and the largest 43.33 percent involved in domestic and household works are unpaid.

Paid workers receive remuneration either in cash or kind. Women participation in this sector is 7.72 percent of the total women labour force. Self-employed labour force is involved in production or service sectors on their own investment. Women participation in this sector is 28.89 percent. Women participation is at maximum in unpaid family work (specially domestic work). Nearly, two-third of the total women labour is involved in this kind of work. All this has developed a wrong perception in the society that women are weak and thus dependent upon others' income.

Table 1: Women Participation by the Type of Labour (in thousands)

Source: NLFS 1998

Agriculture has been one of the worst working sectors, which has nothing to provide as incentives and facilities. It is one of the worst sectors also in terms of working conditions. According to NLFS, the largest number (85.19 percent) of women labour force, above 15 years of age, involved in income generating activities are in this sector. The percentage of women working in non-agriculture informal sector on a daily wage basis and without any kind of other facilities is 12.80 percent. The construction sector such as buildings, road, water and electricity as well as other works operating under a contract or a piece-meal fashion fall under this category. Areas of work with regular remuneration plus other privileges have been grouped as the non-agriculture formal sector. This also includes women working in public offices, corporations, factories and other private offices. The survey shows the women labour at the lowest (1.99 percent) in this sector.

Table 2: Women Participation by Sectors of work (in '000)

Source: NLFS 1998/99

Any work providing monthly remuneration can be taken as regular employment. It has been mentioned as institutionalised or regular employment. Workers in regular employment are enjoying the right to collective bargaining as per labour law. On an ownership basis, industry, business, non-government organisations and other institutions in the state, public and private sector are the major categories.

Among these, the government service is the most secured area of work in terms of job security, services and benefits. Women participation in this sector is just 13.47 percent. The second safe sector is public enterprises. Women participation in public enterprises like telecommunications, electricity authority, water supply, food corporations, dairy development corporation etc. is 14.29 percent. Most of them work in the lower level. Only a very few women are in policy-making levels.

Non-Government Organisations have flooded into the country after the restoration of democracy. NGOs have, ever since, been developed as one of the main areas of employment. According to statistics, more than 26,000 people are working in this sector. The number of labourers working in private industries and trade is 385,000. The remuneration for workers in the sector is arranged on the basis of the labour law. Around 19 percent women participate in both these sectors. .

The highest number of workers is found in small industries, trade and unregistered companies, which are being run in an organised way . Most of these workers are unskilled or semi-skilled. The number involved in this sector is 791,000, where the percentage of women is 30.72 percent.

Table 3: Women Participation in Organised Sector ( in '000)

Source: NLFS 1998/99

Classification of the work is made on the basis of responsibility, efficiency and qualification in any institution. Workers are classified as technicians and the workers in the service sector, police and arm force, agriculture, cottage industry, small business and other sectors. Of the total 1,517,000 workers in all these sectors, 365,000 (24 percent) are women. Majority of them are however in junior levels identified as unskilled workers.

Women participation in senior posts in terms of power, prestige and good salary is quite low in the organised sectors of works. The number of women is high in low paid works, which do not require any kind of skill or qualification, but irritating physical labour.

Table 4: Women in workforce based on skill and position (in '000)

Source: NLFS 1998/99

Participation of women in labour sector is directly associated with education, skill and opportunity they get. Nepali women have to face social discrimination from their birth. Nearly 75.4 percent of women above 15 years of age have never been to school. The number of women getting the opportunity of education up to secondary level is only 4.6 percent while that of men is 13.2 percent.

This statistics explains that even if there is an equal opportunity between men and women, only one-fourths (25 percent) of women are able to compete for employment due to the low level of education and qualification. The patriarchal attitude and culture prevailing in the society has been another hurdle for the women who are able and opting for employment. Given this, an equal opportunity for women is still a far cry.

Table 5: Women Participation in Education
(the population in percentage above 15 years of age)

Source: NLFS 1998

According to the report of National Labour Force Survey (NLFS), 287,000 persons in the country have received vocational training. Among them, 145,000 are women. The participation of women in the sectors like sewing, knitting and general health volunteers is nearly 95 percent. However, either only men or their absolute majority is found in technology-related works such as driving, computer, electricity etc.

Table 6: Vocational and Professional Training (in '000)

Source: NLFS 1998

On the other side, women participation is high in agriculture sector, but the participation of men is higher in agro-related training such as farming and animal husbandry. Therefore, the practical utilisation of such training provided by different organisations should be evaluated.

 

Discrimination in Employment and Wages

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As mentioned above, there is a majority of men in high paid jobs. Women participation is high in low paid jobs. But, there is a marked difference in wages and facilities for men and women even in similar type of work. Viewing in general, the average wage received by women is only 57.26 percent of the average wage of men. The discrimination of its kind can be found in every sector. It is quite maximum in agriculture, cottage industry, machine operating and low-level works. The survey also shows that the wage received by women in agriculture is only one-third of those received by men.

Likewise, the wages women get is only 46.86 percent of what men receive in cottage industries, and 62.29 percent in other works.

Table 7: Average Monthly Income (in Rupees)
 

Work	Average Income	Men	Women	Percentage of What Men Receive
Average in Totality	2,143	2,389	1,368	57.26
High Level Administrative Job	8,037	8,068	7,525	93.27
Vocational	5,079	5,141	4,631	90.08
Technical	2,971	3,057	2,678	87.60
Low Paid Employees	2,832	2,836	2,805	98.91
Service Sector	2,507	2,506	2,525	100.76
Agriculture	2,109	2,756	9,57	34.72
Cottage Industry	2,773	2,973	1,393	46.86
Machine Operator	2,981	2,995	2,037	68.01
Other Professions	1,491	1,692	1,054	62.29
Army	3,306	3,258	4,250	130.45

Source: NLFS 1998/99